한글목차

개요

폴리우레탄(PU) 폼 시장은 2023년부터 2028년에 걸쳐 231억 4,000만 달러 확대되고, 예측 기간 중 연평균 복합 성장률(CAGR)은 8.12%를 나타낼 것으로 예측됩니다.

폴리우레탄 폼 시장에 대한 전체적인 분석, 시장 규모와 예측, 동향, 성장 촉진요인, 과제, 약 25개 벤더를 대상으로 한 벤더 분석 등의 정보를 게재했습니다.

현재의 시장 시나리오, 최신 동향과 촉진요인, 시장 환경 전체에 관한 최신 분석을 제공합니다. 가구나 침구 폴리우레탄 폼 수요 증가, 중국의 폴리우레탄 폼 수요 증가, 폴리우레탄 폼의 우수한 특성 등이 시장 성장을 가속하고 있습니다.

본 조사에서는 향후 몇 년간 폴리우레탄 폼 시장 성장을 가속하는 주요인 중 하나로서 HFC나 HCFC 대체로서 HFO 사용이 증가하고 있는 것을 들고 있습니다. 바이오 폴리우레탄 폼의 출현과 열가소성 폴리우레탄의 생산능력 향상은 시장의 높은 수요로 연결될 것입니다.

목차

제1장 주요 요약

• 시장 개요

제2장 시장 구도

• 시장 생태계

제3장 시장 규모

• 시장의 정의
• 시장 부문 분석
• 시장 규모(2023년)
• 시장 전망(2023-2028년)

제4장 시장 규모 실적

• 세계의 세계의 폴리우레탄(PU) 폼 시장 2018-2022
• 유형별 부문 분석(2018-2022년)
• 용도별 부문 분석(2018-2022년)
• 지역별 부문 분석(2018-2022년)
• 국가별 부문 분석(2018-2022년)

제5장 Five Forces 분석

• Five Forces 요약
• 바이어의 교섭력
• 공급 기업의 교섭력
• 신규 진출업체의 위협
• 대체품의 위협
• 경쟁 위협
• 시장 현황

제6장 시장 세분화 : 유형별

• 시장 부문
• 비교 : 유형별
• 연질 폴리우레탄 폼 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 경질 폴리우레탄 폼 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 성형 폴리우레탄 폼 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 시장 기회 : 유형별

제7장 시장 세분화 : 용도별

• 시장 부문
• 비교 : 용도별
• 가구 및 침구 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 건축 및 건설 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 운송 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 가전제품 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 기타 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 시장 기회 : 용도별

제8장 고객 상황

• 고객 상황 개요

제9장 지역별 상황

• 지역별 세분화
• 지역별 비교
• 아시아태평양 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 유럽 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 북미 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 중동 및 아프리카 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 남미 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 중국 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 일본 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 미국 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 독일 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 영국 : 시장 규모와 예측(2023-2028년)
• 시장 기회 : 지역 상황별

제10장 성장 촉진요인, 과제 및 동향

• 시장 성장 촉진요인
• 시장이 해결해야 할 과제
• 성장 촉진요인과 과제의 영향
• 시장 동향

제11장 벤더 구도

• 개요
• 벤더 구도
• 혼란 상황
• 업계 리스크

제12장 벤더 분석

• 대상 벤더
• 벤더의 시장 포지셔닝
• All Foam Products Co.
• Armacell International SA
• Clark Foam Products Corp.
• Dafa AS
• FoamPartner Switzerland AG
• Hira Industries LLC
• INOAC Corp.
• Johnson Controls International Plc
• JSP Ltd.
• Mitsui Chemicals Inc.
• Orlando Products Inc.
• Palziv Inc.
• Pregis LLC
• Wisconsin Foam Products
• Zotefoams plc

제13장 부록

영문목차

Abstract

The polyurethane foam market is forecasted to grow by USD 23.14 bn during 2023-2028, accelerating at a CAGR of 8.12% during the forecast period. The report on the polyurethane foam market provides a holistic analysis, market size and forecast, trends, growth drivers, and challenges, as well as vendor analysis covering around 25 vendors.

The report offers an up-to-date analysis regarding the current market scenario, the latest trends and drivers, and the overall market environment. The market is driven by increasing demand for PU foams in furniture and bedding, rising demand for PU foams in China, and superior properties of PU foams.

Technavio's polyurethane foam market is segmented as below:

By Type

• Flexible PU foams
• Rigid PU foams
• Molded PU foams

By Application

• Furniture and bedding
• Building and construction
• Transport
• Appliances
• Others

By Geographical Landscape

• APAC
• Europe
• North America
• Middle East and Africa
• South America

This study identifies the increased use of methylal and HFOs as alternatives to HFCs and HCFCs as one of the prime reasons driving the polyurethane foam market growth during the next few years. Also, the emergence of bio-based PU foams and rising production capacity for thermoplastic PU will lead to sizable demand in the market.

The report on the polyurethane foam market covers the following areas:

• Polyurethane foam market sizing
• Polyurethane foam market forecast
• Polyurethane foam market industry analysis

The robust vendor analysis is designed to help clients improve their market position, and in line with this, this report provides a detailed analysis of several leading polyurethane foam market vendors that include All Foam Products Co., Armacell International SA, Changzhou Sanhe Plastic Rubber Co. Ltd., Clark Foam Products Corp., Dafa AS, FoamPartner Switzerland AG, INOAC Corp., Johnson Controls International Plc, JSP Ltd., Mitsui Chemicals Inc., Orlando Products Inc., PAR Group Ltd., Pregis LLC, PTI Rubber and Gaskets Inc., Rogers Foam Corp., Sealed Air Corp., Wisconsin Foam Products, Zotefoams plc, Hira Industries LLC, and Palziv Inc.. Also, the polyurethane foam market analysis report includes information on upcoming trends and challenges that will influence market growth. This is to help companies strategize and leverage all forthcoming growth opportunities.

The study was conducted using an objective combination of primary and secondary information including inPUts from key participants in the industry. The report contains a comprehensive market and vendor landscape in addition to an analysis of the key vendors.

The PUblisher presents a detailed picture of the market by the way of study, synthesis, and summation of data from multiple sources by an analysis of key parameters such as profit, pricing, competition, and promotions. It presents various market facets by identifying the key industry influencers. The data presented is comprehensive, reliable, and a result of extensive research - both primary and secondary. The market research reports provide a complete competitive landscape and an in-depth vendor selection methodology and analysis using qualitative and quantitative research to forecast the accurate market growth.

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

• 1.1 Market overview
• Exhibit 01: Executive Summary - Chart on Market Overview
• Exhibit 02: Executive Summary - Data Table on Market Overview
• Exhibit 03: Executive Summary - Chart on Global Market Characteristics
• Exhibit 04: Executive Summary - Chart on Market By Geographical Landscape
• Exhibit 05: Executive Summary - Chart on Market Segmentation by Type
• Exhibit 06: Executive Summary - Chart on Market Segmentation by Application
• Exhibit 07: Executive Summary - Chart on Incremental Growth
• Exhibit 08: Executive Summary - Data Table on Incremental Growth
• Exhibit 09: Executive Summary - Chart on Vendor Market Positioning

2 Market Landscape

• 2.1 Market ecosystem
• Exhibit 10: Parent market
• Exhibit 11: Market Characteristics

3 Market Sizing

• 3.1 Market definition
• Exhibit 12: Offerings of vendors included in the market definition
• 3.2 Market segment analysis
• Exhibit 13: Market segments
• 3.3 Market size 2023
• 3.4 Market outlook: Forecast for 2023-2028
• Exhibit 14: Chart on Global - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 15: Data Table on Global - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 16: Chart on Global Market: Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 17: Data Table on Global Market: Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)

4 Historic Market Size

• 4.1 Global polyurethane (PU) foam market 2018 - 2022
• Exhibit 18: Historic Market Size - Data Table on global polyurethane (pu) foam market 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)
• 4.2 Type Segment Analysis 2018 - 2022
• Exhibit 19: Historic Market Size - Type Segment 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)
• 4.3 Application Segment Analysis 2018 - 2022
• Exhibit 20: Historic Market Size - Application Segment 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)
• 4.4 Geography Segment Analysis 2018 - 2022
• Exhibit 21: Historic Market Size - Geography Segment 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)
• 4.5 Country Segment Analysis 2018 - 2022
• Exhibit 22: Historic Market Size - Country Segment 2018 - 2022 ($ billion)

5 Five Forces Analysis

• 5.1 Five forces summary
• Exhibit 23: Five forces analysis - Comparison between 2023 and 2028
• 5.2 Bargaining power of buyers
• Exhibit 24: Chart on Bargaining power of buyers - Impact of key factors 2023 and 2028
• 5.3 Bargaining power of suppliers
• Exhibit 25: Bargaining power of suppliers - Impact of key factors in 2023 and 2028
• 5.4 Threat of new entrants
• Exhibit 26: Threat of new entrants - Impact of key factors in 2023 and 2028
• 5.5 Threat of substitutes
• Exhibit 27: Threat of substitutes - Impact of key factors in 2023 and 2028
• 5.6 Threat of rivalry
• Exhibit 28: Threat of rivalry - Impact of key factors in 2023 and 2028
• 5.7 Market condition
• Exhibit 29: Chart on Market condition - Five forces 2023 and 2028

6 Market Segmentation by Type

• 6.1 Market segments
• Exhibit 30: Chart on Type - Market share 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 31: Data Table on Type - Market share 2023-2028 (%)
• 6.2 Comparison by Type
• Exhibit 32: Chart on Comparison by Type
• Exhibit 33: Data Table on Comparison by Type
• 6.3 Flexible PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 34: Chart on Flexible PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 35: Data Table on Flexible PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 36: Chart on Flexible PU foams - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 37: Data Table on Flexible PU foams - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 6.4 Rigid PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 38: Chart on Rigid PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 39: Data Table on Rigid PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 40: Chart on Rigid PU foams - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 41: Data Table on Rigid PU foams - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 6.5 Molded PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 42: Chart on Molded PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 43: Data Table on Molded PU foams - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 44: Chart on Molded PU foams - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 45: Data Table on Molded PU foams - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 6.6 Market opportunity by Type
• Exhibit 46: Market opportunity by Type ($ billion)
• Exhibit 47: Data Table on Market opportunity by Type ($ billion)

7 Market Segmentation by Application

• 7.1 Market segments
• Exhibit 48: Chart on Application - Market share 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 49: Data Table on Application - Market share 2023-2028 (%)
• 7.2 Comparison by Application
• Exhibit 50: Chart on Comparison by Application
• Exhibit 51: Data Table on Comparison by Application
• 7.3 Furniture and bedding - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 52: Chart on Furniture and bedding - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 53: Data Table on Furniture and bedding - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 54: Chart on Furniture and bedding - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 55: Data Table on Furniture and bedding - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 7.4 Building and construction - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 56: Chart on Building and construction - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 57: Data Table on Building and construction - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 58: Chart on Building and construction - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 59: Data Table on Building and construction - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 7.5 Transport - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 60: Chart on Transport - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 61: Data Table on Transport - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 62: Chart on Transport - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 63: Data Table on Transport - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 7.6 Appliances - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 64: Chart on Appliances - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 65: Data Table on Appliances - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 66: Chart on Appliances - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 67: Data Table on Appliances - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 7.7 Others - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 68: Chart on Others - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 69: Data Table on Others - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 70: Chart on Others - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 71: Data Table on Others - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 7.8 Market opportunity by Application
• Exhibit 72: Market opportunity by Application ($ billion)
• Exhibit 73: Data Table on Market opportunity by Application ($ billion)

8 Customer Landscape

• 8.1 Customer landscape overview
• Exhibit 74: Analysis of price sensitivity, lifecycle, customer purchase basket, adoption rates, and purchase criteria

9 Geographic Landscape

• 9.1 Geographic segmentation
• Exhibit 75: Chart on Market share By Geographical Landscape 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 76: Data Table on Market share By Geographical Landscape 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.2 Geographic comparison
• Exhibit 77: Chart on Geographic comparison
• Exhibit 78: Data Table on Geographic comparison
• 9.3 APAC - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 79: Chart on APAC - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 80: Data Table on APAC - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 81: Chart on APAC - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 82: Data Table on APAC - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.4 Europe - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 83: Chart on Europe - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 84: Data Table on Europe - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 85: Chart on Europe - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 86: Data Table on Europe - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.5 North America - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 87: Chart on North America - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 88: Data Table on North America - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 89: Chart on North America - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 90: Data Table on North America - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.6 Middle East and Africa - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 91: Chart on Middle East and Africa - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 92: Data Table on Middle East and Africa - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 93: Chart on Middle East and Africa - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 94: Data Table on Middle East and Africa - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.7 South America - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 95: Chart on South America - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 96: Data Table on South America - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 97: Chart on South America - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 98: Data Table on South America - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.8 China - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 99: Chart on China - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 100: Data Table on China - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 101: Chart on China - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 102: Data Table on China - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.9 Japan - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 103: Chart on Japan - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 104: Data Table on Japan - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 105: Chart on Japan - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 106: Data Table on Japan - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.10 US - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 107: Chart on US - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 108: Data Table on US - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 109: Chart on US - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 110: Data Table on US - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.11 Germany - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 111: Chart on Germany - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 112: Data Table on Germany - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 113: Chart on Germany - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 114: Data Table on Germany - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.12 UK - Market size and forecast 2023-2028
• Exhibit 115: Chart on UK - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 116: Data Table on UK - Market size and forecast 2023-2028 ($ billion)
• Exhibit 117: Chart on UK - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• Exhibit 118: Data Table on UK - Year-over-year growth 2023-2028 (%)
• 9.13 Market opportunity By Geographical Landscape
• Exhibit 119: Market opportunity By Geographical Landscape ($ billion)
• Exhibit 120: Data Tables on Market opportunity By Geographical Landscape ($ billion)

10 Drivers, Challenges, and Trends

• 10.1 Market drivers
• 10.2 Market challenges
• 10.3 Impact of drivers and challenges
• Exhibit 121: Impact of drivers and challenges in 2023 and 2028
• 10.4 Market trends

11 Vendor Landscape

• 11.1 Overview
• 11.2 Vendor landscape
• Exhibit 122: Overview on Criticality of inputs and Factors of differentiation
• 11.3 Landscape disruption
• Exhibit 123: Overview on factors of disruption
• 11.4 Industry risks
• Exhibit 124: Impact of key risks on business

12 Vendor Analysis

• 12.1 Vendors covered
• Exhibit 125: Vendors covered
• 12.2 Market positioning of vendors
• Exhibit 126: Matrix on vendor position and classification
• 12.3 All Foam Products Co.
• Exhibit 127: All Foam Products Co. - Overview
• Exhibit 128: All Foam Products Co. - Product / Service
• Exhibit 129: All Foam Products Co. - Key offerings
• 12.4 Armacell International SA
• Exhibit 130: Armacell International SA - Overview
• Exhibit 131: Armacell International SA - Business segments
• Exhibit 132: Armacell International SA - Key news
• Exhibit 133: Armacell International SA - Key offerings
• Exhibit 134: Armacell International SA - Segment focus
• 12.5 Clark Foam Products Corp.
• Exhibit 135: Clark Foam Products Corp. - Overview
• Exhibit 136: Clark Foam Products Corp. - Product / Service
• Exhibit 137: Clark Foam Products Corp. - Key offerings
• 12.6 Dafa AS
• Exhibit 138: Dafa AS - Overview
• Exhibit 139: Dafa AS - Product / Service
• Exhibit 140: Dafa AS - Key offerings
• 12.7 FoamPartner Switzerland AG
• Exhibit 141: FoamPartner Switzerland AG - Overview
• Exhibit 142: FoamPartner Switzerland AG - Product / Service
• Exhibit 143: FoamPartner Switzerland AG - Key offerings
• 12.8 Hira Industries LLC
• Exhibit 144: Hira Industries LLC - Overview
• Exhibit 145: Hira Industries LLC - Product / Service
• Exhibit 146: Hira Industries LLC - Key offerings
• 12.9 INOAC Corp.
• Exhibit 147: INOAC Corp. - Overview
• Exhibit 148: INOAC Corp. - Product / Service
• Exhibit 149: INOAC Corp. - Key offerings
• 12.10 Johnson Controls International Plc
• Exhibit 150: Johnson Controls International Plc - Overview
• Exhibit 151: Johnson Controls International Plc - Business segments
• Exhibit 152: Johnson Controls International Plc - Key news
• Exhibit 153: Johnson Controls International Plc - Key offerings
• Exhibit 154: Johnson Controls International Plc - Segment focus
• 12.11 JSP Ltd.
• Exhibit 155: JSP Ltd. - Overview
• Exhibit 156: JSP Ltd. - Product / Service
• Exhibit 157: JSP Ltd. - Key offerings
• 12.12 Mitsui Chemicals Inc.
• Exhibit 158: Mitsui Chemicals Inc. - Overview
• Exhibit 159: Mitsui Chemicals Inc. - Business segments
• Exhibit 160: Mitsui Chemicals Inc. - Key offerings
• Exhibit 161: Mitsui Chemicals Inc. - Segment focus
• 12.13 Orlando Products Inc.
• Exhibit 162: Orlando Products Inc. - Overview
• Exhibit 163: Orlando Products Inc. - Product / Service
• Exhibit 164: Orlando Products Inc. - Key offerings
• 12.14 Palziv Inc.
• Exhibit 165: Palziv Inc. - Overview
• Exhibit 166: Palziv Inc. - Product / Service
• Exhibit 167: Palziv Inc. - Key offerings
• 12.15 Pregis LLC
• Exhibit 168: Pregis LLC - Overview
• Exhibit 169: Pregis LLC - Product / Service
• Exhibit 170: Pregis LLC - Key offerings
• 12.16 Wisconsin Foam Products
• Exhibit 171: Wisconsin Foam Products - Overview
• Exhibit 172: Wisconsin Foam Products - Product / Service
• Exhibit 173: Wisconsin Foam Products - Key offerings
• 12.17 Zotefoams plc
• Exhibit 174: Zotefoams plc - Overview
• Exhibit 175: Zotefoams plc - Business segments
• Exhibit 176: Zotefoams plc - Key offerings
• Exhibit 177: Zotefoams plc - Segment focus

13 Appendix

• 13.1 Scope of the report
• 13.2 Inclusions and exclusions checklist
• Exhibit 178: Inclusions checklist
• Exhibit 179: Exclusions checklist
• 13.3 Currency conversion rates for US$
• Exhibit 180: Currency conversion rates for US$
• 13.4 Research methodology
• Exhibit 181: Research methodology
• Exhibit 182: Validation techniques employed for market sizing
• Exhibit 183: Information sources
• 13.5 List of abbreviations
• Exhibit 184: List of abbreviations